Resisting Prophet, Priest, and King

Having observed a few of the ways in which Schleiermacher’s Christology lent support to and was affirming of nineteenth century colonialism, we now proceed to examine aspects of his work which might supply us with a challenge to imperialist structures. Interestingly, Schleiermacher did not promote the rugged individualism that was typical of modern colonialism, early capitalism, and the pioneer spirit of the expanding United States. His stress upon relatedness and community was surely a step in the right direction, but there was still no place for suffering and little concern for the outsider in his model. However, his hope for a universal salvation, when tied to his understanding of Christ as high priest, allows for the possible expansion of this community. For Schleiermacher, no person was to be rejected, and nobody could claim that salvation was entirely (or even mostly) for the colonizers, the Europeans, or the Christians. All that said, he can still be read in support of empire. Rieger suggests that an explicitly anticolonial Christ, or an understanding of colonialism as worldly, might enable us to overcome the ambivalence.

Schleiermacher considered Christianity to have been polemical through and through; even within its own borders. He viewed it as a higher form of religion which had as its goal to expose the world’s pervasive Godlessness. In addition, he believed that the infinite could be seen in all finite things, which opened up the possibility of locating God in unexpected areas; even unexpected areas within the colonial enterprise. Together, these insights could provide a potential surplus. Rieger asks, what if colonial Christianity were not the foremost stage of religion? Conceivably, the impoverished and those oppressed by and within the colonial system could issue a legitimate challenge against colonial Christianity. Perhaps Christianity would experience a rebirth of sorts as a result of this critique, and (emerging out of the corruptions of colonialism) consequently develop in to a much stronger and more beautiful form of religion? Another aspect of his thought that might challenge colonialism was his awareness of Christ as the common root of theology and ethics. Christological statements (i.e. “Jesus is Lord” and “Jesus is redeemer”) can be used in order to shore up imperial hierarchies if they are not understood as inherently ethical or if the ethics implied by the declarations are not clearly defined. An understanding of Christ which refuses to ignore attributes such as His Jewishness and His solidarity with the poor might be the initial step on the pathway of resistance.

Rieger identifies a relationship between the three offices of Christ and the three categories of action which structure Schleiermacher’s “Christian Ethics”; each of which puts forward a critique of empire. In each one of these actions, the equality, the freedom of judgment and expression, and the participatory role of every individual within the church (regardless of class) was recognized which hence broadened the power base across more democratic lines. Furthermore, these three actions operated on the basis of attraction rather than brute force. The purifying action (priest) began with the supposition that the church was imperfect, and therefore allowed for the possibility of progress (both theologically and ethically) within it. Related to this was the broadening action (prophet) which centered upon Christian mission and expansionism. Here, the prospect for progress within the church was also duly noted, and beyond this, the prospective value of the contributions of those who were less educated in the ways of western civilization was also taken into account. The third and final category was the representational action (king) which stressed the extent of Christ’s rule. At this point, even non-Christians were included due to the fact that the difference between outsiders and insiders was merely temporal; they had not-yet received the Spirit. Schleiermacher did not wholly transcend the colonial mindset, nevertheless he did leave us with some prospect for resistance.

Prophet, Priest, and King, Colonial Style

The writings of Friedrich Schleiermacher will be of significant interest to us in our study. There is no doubt that he resisted the most violent and overpowering techniques and constructs of nineteenth century colonialism. Still, it is apparent that the characteristic colonial assumptions of his day were at work in the deep recesses of his mind, profoundly contributing to the formation of his Christology. Rieger is persuaded that the colonial dynamics that were at work behind Schleiermacher’s theology, though certainly less brutal, actually ended up generating a much more potent brand of colonialism. In order that we might catch a glimpse of Schleiermacher’s underlying colonial presuppositions, Rieger has determined to lead us through an investigation of his interpretation of the classical Reformed doctrine of the three offices of Christ. While his writings do provide us with potential avenues of resistance, we must not fail to recognize that the colonial impulses inherent within his Christology are also very strong. In this section, our stress will be upon those aspects of his theology which are affirming of the imperial status quo.

Schleiermacher understood Christ to have been both the climax and the end of all three offices. He considered European Christianity to have been far closer to Christ than the rest of the world, and he also presumed that Christ was overwhelmingly supportive of European colonial Christianity. In fact, he judged the Protestantism of Europe to have been the intermediary between Christ and the world. As prophet, the challenge of Christ came in the form of European colonial Christianity, and was directed at those whom he viewed as less powerful and less civilized. In addition, he believed that the power and civilization of the European Christian culture provided the substantiating evidence which authenticated its claim to prophetic authority. As priest, Christ supplied comfort and security to the European Christians by confirming them in their colonial enterprise, by justifying their neglect of voluntary suffering, and by authorizing their ambitions for self-preservation. Furthermore, European Christendom (itself indistinguishable from Christ) became the ideal to which humanity was destined to attain, as well as the mediator between God and the world (as the priest is to the laity). Finally, as King, the power of Christ was exercised through European Christianity. It was limitless, irresistibly attractive, and effective towards the goal of moving people on to higher stages of humanity (specifically the universal ideal of Christ, manifested most fully in European Protestantism).

Following right along with modernity’s universalizing propensity, Schleiermacher described Christ as the completion of the creation of a generalized humanity (which had been abstracted from any and all signifiers including race, gender, and social location). To put it a different way, Christ was the quintessential representative of a universal human nature. This despite the fact that universal humanity is never truly universal, and in fact only exists in the minds of those in power. The void that was created by Schleiermacher’s lack of specified definition for this universalized humanity was conveniently filled in by the up-and-coming middle class of German-Prussia (those who were most able with regard to intellectual and economic affairs). These were deemed to have been the closest to universal humanity, as well as ambassadors of the superior civilization and power that the European Christians possessed over colonized non-Christian people groups. Schleiermacher also presumed that the rest of humanity needed to adjust and (in due course) evolve in the direction of the middle class Protestants of Prussia. By and large, for him, Christ’s redemptive work did not present a challenge to or a critique against the softer colonialist mentality of Europe. Rather, the work of Christ supplied a source of encouragement for the colonial minded Europeans as they set out to enlighten underdeveloped (and thus sinful!) non-European, non-Christian cultures around the world.

The Colonial Character of Modern Theology

We will now move on to a discussion of the Christology of the man who is known as the father of modern liberalism, German theologian Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834) and particularly his handling of the three offices of Christ: prophet, priest and king. In the modern colonial context of the nineteenth century, these titles were evidently ambivalent; meaning that they had the potential to be employed either in support of or in resistance to imperial structures. There were times when Schleiermacher used these three offices to speak approvingly of the colonial projects of the so-called Christian nations, yet he also set out to redefine the power of Christ in terms of attraction rather than coercion. While this redefinition might be understood as having been a critique of colonialism, it is more likely that his emphasis on attraction represented a transformation of imperial strategy and a new approach to the exercising of top-down power. If we are seeking to locate a Christological surplus in Schleiermacher, we will first have to take note of the historical context in which he constructed his theology.

Germany was not yet a colonial power in Schleiermacher’s day. Truth be told, Germany as a nation did not even exist yet. Technically he lived in what was called Prussia. Prussia had recently expanded its territory eastward, and the colonial spirit was rushing swiftly throughout the land. The fact that Prussia was not actively participating in colonialization at this time actually served to strengthen the colonial discourse which was occurring in the area. Along with the colonizing nations of Europe, the Germans affirmed their own superiority and value over and against the colonized other, and even took a step beyond this assertion to declare their own moral superiority over those European nations (especially the Spanish) who were already participating in colonialization projects. Thus the cultural situation in which Schleiermacher constructed his theology was one which was permeated with colonial fantasies. This time period also featured the commencement of a shift in power from the older feudalistic aristocracies to the up-and-coming middle class (which was erected on the backs of the lower classes both at home and abroad). The transfer was the result of emerging capitalist relations, industrialization in the European homeland, and colonial relationships overseas. For Schleiermacher, the context of this emerging modern middle class was of central concern, and it was also the environment in which his theology was produced.

Schleiermacher himself had a colonial mentality. In his descriptions of New South Wales, he was primarily concerned with highlighting the ways in which the land could provide beneficial resources which would assist the British in their colonial aspirations. His depictions of the Aboriginals in Australia are even more revealing. He described them as uncivilized and barely human (with black skin and wooly hair, however lacking the peculiarly repulsive facial features of the African negro). While he did campaign for a peaceful co-existence with them, he did so because he believed that there was absolutely no use for them (not even as a labor force) in the colonial system. Hierarchical tendencies are apparent as well. His attractive power of Christ (in opposition to the coercive power of stronger forms of colonialism) was entirely reliant upon his presupposing of a natural order which resembled the top to bottom hierarchy of empire. He considered the European culture and Protestantism of the colonizers to have been far superior to that of the colonized, and perceived the colonizing nations to have been representatives of the attractive power of Christ. As far as he was concerned, the only rational option for the colonized would have been to gladly submit to the religion and culture of the colonizers. He appears to have been wholly ignorant of the fact that this attractive power only worked as a result of colonial power differentials.